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Heather Huhman

Lindsey Pollak is a “next generation career expert.” Her blog benefits all career professionals, especially recent graduates.Heather Huhman’s blog is helpful for all job seekers, but particularly those looking into internships.If you are a job seeker looking for a career change, this would be the blog to visit.This blogs allows you to read up on career advice articles and utilize SimplyHired.com’s job search engine.You can also check out our team’s blog at blog.resunate.com, for career and resume advice to job seekers.

Careerbright Blog

Covers articles on job search, social media trends, personal branding, developing and improving your online presence, interviewing, career management, decision making, marketing plan, networking and more. Hannah Morgan, aka, Career Sherpa, a nationally recognized author and speaker and job search strategist helps people understand what actions they need to take to find a job faster.

Heather Huhman

Covers articles on job search, social media trends, personal branding, developing and improving your online presence, interviewing, career management, decision making, marketing plan, networking and more. Hannah Morgan, aka, Career Sherpa, a nationally recognized author and speaker and job search strategist helps people understand what actions they need to take to find a job faster.

How To Create File In Linux

if you want to create a file in linux through the cat command 

then you can type the command 
cat > filename 
then type the contain 
then press ctrl + z buttom 

What is Linux Operating system

Linux is an open-source operating system based on Unix. It was created by Linus Torvalds in 1991, and its source code is freely available for anyone to view, modify, and distribute. The core component of Linux is the Linux kernel, which manages the hardware resources of the computer.

Unlike proprietary operating systems like Windows or macOS, Linux is highly customizable, and it’s used in a wide range of devices, from personal computers to servers, smartphones, and even embedded systems. It's known for being secure, stable, and efficient.

A typical Linux system also includes a set of software tools and utilities, including a user interface (most commonly a desktop environment like GNOME or KDE), system libraries, and command-line utilities. Various distributions (or "distros") of Linux, such as Ubuntu, Fedora, and Debian, come with different configurations and software packages, making it easy for users to choose one based on their needs.

what is operating system

An operating system (OS) is software that acts as an intermediary between computer hardware and the computer user. It manages and controls the hardware and software resources of a computer, enabling applications to run and users to interact with the system. Essentially, the OS provides a user-friendly interface and ensures that the hardware and software can work together smoothly.

Key functions of an operating system include:

  1. Managing hardware resources: The OS controls and allocates resources like the CPU, memory (RAM), storage devices, and input/output devices (like a keyboard and monitor).

  2. Running programs: It allows multiple programs to run on the computer, providing a platform for software to execute.

  3. Managing files: The OS helps in organizing, storing, and retrieving files and directories on storage devices like hard drives or SSDs.

  4. User interface: It provides a way for users to interact with the computer, either through a graphical user interface (GUI), like Windows or macOS, or through a command-line interface (CLI), like in Linux.

  5. Security and access control: The OS ensures that only authorized users can access certain resources and maintains security protocols to protect data and system integrity.

Common examples of operating systems include:

  • Windows (by Microsoft)
  • macOS (by Apple)
  • Linux (open-source, available in various distributions)
  • Android (used in smartphones and tablets)
  • iOS (used in Apple mobile devices)

What is shell in linux

a shell is a command-line interface (CLI) that allows users to interact with the operating system by typing commands. It acts as an intermediary between the user and the kernel, enabling the user to execute programs, manipulate files, and control system functions.

There are different types of shells in Linux, with Bash (Bourne Again Shell) being the most common. Other examples include Zsh, Fish, Tcsh, and Sh. The shell interprets the commands you type, runs them, and then displays the output.

In short, it's like a "translator" between you and the operating system, converting your commands into actions.

Linux Directory and function

In Linux, a directory is essentially a container used to organize files and other directories. It can hold various files, subdirectories, and symbolic links to other files or directories. Here are the key details and concepts about Linux directories:
1. Basic Structure
The root directory is represented by / and is the starting point of the filesystem.
All other directories branch off from / or the root directory.
The full path to a file or directory begins from the root directory.
2. Common Linux Directories:
/: The root directory, contains all system files and directories.
/bin: Contains essential binary executables (programs) used by the system and users.
/etc: Contains system configuration files.
/home: The directory that holds user-specific files and subdirectories. Each user typically has their own directory here (e.g., /home/username).
/var: Contains variable data files like logs, spool files, and temporary files.
/usr: Contains user-related programs and data, including libraries and documentation.
/tmp: A temporary directory where files can be stored temporarily by programs or processes.
/lib: Contains shared library files needed by system programs.
3. Directory Permissions
Directories, like files, have permissions that control who can access or modify the contents. These permissions are:
r (read): List the contents of the directory.
w (write): Add, delete, or rename files within the directory.
x (execute): Traverse into the directory, allowing you to access files or subdirectories inside.
You can view directory permissions using ls -l command, where directories are indicated with a d at the beginning of the line (e.g., drwxr-xr-x).
4. Creating and Navigating Directories
Creating a directory: You can use mkdir directory_name to create a new directory.
Navigating directories: You use the cd command to change into a directory, e.g., cd /home/username.
Listing directory contents: You can list the contents of a directory using ls (add -l for detailed information, and -a to show hidden files).
5. Relative vs. Absolute Paths
Absolute path: The full path to a file or directory starting from the root (e.g., /home/username/docs).
Relative path: The path relative to the current working directory (e.g., ../docs).
6. Special Directories
.: Represents the current directory.
..: Represents the parent directory of the current directory.
7. Symbolic and Hard Links
Symbolic link (symlink): A special type of file that points to another file or directory (e.g., ln -s /path/to/target /path/to/link).
Hard link: Creates another reference to the same inode (data on disk) but doesn't point to a specific path.

what is bash file

A Bash file (or Bash script) is a text file containing a series of commands that are executed by the Bash shell, which is a command-line interpreter. The file typically has a .sh extension, although this isn't required, and it contains a sequence of shell commands that can automate tasks or perform complex operations in a Unix-like operating system (such as Linux or macOS).

The basic structure of a Bash script includes:

  1. Shebang (#!/bin/bash): This is the first line of the script, telling the system to use the Bash shell to execute the file.

  2. Commands: The script contains a series of commands that you would normally type in the terminal.

  3. Control Structures: You can use loops (for, while), conditionals (if, else), and functions to organize the script and handle more complex tasks.

  4. Variables: Bash scripts can define and use variables to store values and pass data.

For example, a simple Bash script might look like this:



bash








#!/bin/bash# This is a commentecho "Hello, World!"  # Prints "Hello, World!" to the terminal

How to run a Bash script:

  1. Create a file, e.g., my_script.sh.
  2. Add the necessary commands and logic inside it.
  3. Make the script executable by running chmod +x my_script.sh.
  4. Execute the script by typing ./my_script.sh in the terminal.

Bash scripts are widely used for automating system administration tasks, software installation, data processing, and other repetitive task.

what is cat command and how to used cat command

The cat command in Linux stands for concatenate. It is commonly used for displaying the contents of files, concatenating multiple files, creating new files, and more. Essentially, cat allows you to view file contents directly in the terminal and manipulate them in various ways.

Basic Usage of cat:

  1. Display the contents of a file:To show the content of a file, simply use:

    

    bash
    

    

    

    

    cat filename.txt

    This will print the content of filename.txt to the terminal.

  2. Concatenate (combine) multiple files:To display the contents of several files in order, use:

    

    bash
    

    

    

    

    cat file1.txt file2.txt

    This will print the contents of file1.txt followed by file2.txt.

  3. Create a new file or overwrite an existing file:You can also use cat to create a new file and input content manually:

    

    bash
    

    

    

    

    cat > newfile.txt

    After running this command, you can type your content, and when you're done, press Ctrl+D to save the content and exit.

  4. Append content to an existing file:If you want to append the content of one file to another, use the >> operator:

    

    bash
    

    

    

    

    cat file1.txt >> file2.txt

    This will add the content of file1.txt to the end of file2.txt.

  5. Redirect output to a new file:To redirect the output of cat into a new file (overwriting it):

    

    bash
    

    

    

    

    cat file1.txt > newfile.txt

    This will create or overwrite newfile.txt with the contents of file1.txt.

Useful Options with cat:

  • -n: Number all lines.

    

    bash
    

    

    

    

    cat -n filename.txt

    This will display the contents of filename.txt with line numbers at the beginning of each line.

  • -b: Number non-empty lines only.

    

    bash
    

    

    

    

    cat -b filename.txt

    This will add line numbers, but skips numbering empty lines.

  • -s: Squeeze multiple empty lines into one.

    

    bash
    

    

    

    

    cat -s filename.txt

    This will suppress extra blank lines and only show a single empty line between sections of text.

  • -v: Show non-printing characters in a visible format.

    

    bash
    

    

    

    

    cat -v filename.txt

    This will make non-printable characters (like newlines or tabs) visible in the output.

Example:

If you want to display the contents of two files, number the lines, and suppress extra blank lines, you can combine options like this:



bash








cat -ns file1.txt file2.txt

This will number all lines, and compress consecutive blank lines into a single one, displaying both files' contents.

Summary:

  • Display a file: cat filename.txt
  • Concatenate files: cat file1.txt file2.txt
  • Create a file: cat > newfile.txt
  • Append to a file: cat file1.txt >> file2.txt
  • Redirect to a file: cat file1.txt > newfile.txt

what is cloud

The term "cloud" can have a few different meanings depending on the context, but in technology, cloud computing is the most common usage. It refers to the practice of using remote servers hosted on the internet to store, manage, and process data instead of relying on local computers or physical servers.

Here are the key aspects:

  1. Cloud Storage: Storing data on servers over the internet (e.g., Google Drive, iCloud, Dropbox). This allows you to access your files from any device connected to the internet, without needing a physical storage device like a hard drive.

  2. Cloud Services: Software applications and services that run on the cloud, such as Google Docs, Microsoft Office 365, or even larger platforms like Amazon Web Services (AWS) or Microsoft Azure. These services can scale according to needs and are usually subscription-based.

  3. Cloud Infrastructure: Refers to the underlying technology that makes cloud services possible, such as large data centers that house the servers and hardware needed to run applications and store data remotely.

what is powerbi

Power BI is a business analytics tool developed by Microsoft. It helps organizations to visualize their data, share insights, and make data-driven decisions. The platform offers interactive reports and dashboards, transforming raw data into easily digestible visualizations.

Power BI is made up of several components:

  1. Power BI Desktop: A free application that you can install on your computer to create reports and data visualizations.
  2. Power BI Service: A cloud-based platform where you can publish, share, and collaborate on reports and dashboards.
  3. Power BI Mobile: Apps for mobile devices that allow users to view and interact with reports and dashboards on the go.
  4. Power BI Gateway: A tool that allows you to securely connect on-premises data sources to Power BI.
  5. Power BI Embedded: Allows you to embed Power BI reports and dashboards into your own applications.

Power BI integrates with a wide range of data sources, including Excel, SQL Server, Google Analytics, Salesforce, and many others. It’s popular for its ease of use, real-time data monitoring, and the ability to handle large volumes of data.

what is group n linux

In Linux, a group is a collection of users. It allows system administrators to organize users into groups for easier management of permissions and access controls. Each group typically has a unique name and a list of users that belong to it.

Key points about groups in Linux:

  1. Group ID (GID): Every group has a unique identifier known as the GID, which is used by the system to identify the group.

  2. Group Ownership of Files: Each file or directory on a Linux system has an associated group ownership. The group determines who can access the file based on the group’s permissions (read, write, execute).

  3. Access Control: By assigning users to groups and then assigning permissions to groups, it simplifies managing access to files and directories. For example, a file can be set with permissions that only allow members of a certain group to read or modify it.

  4. Default Group for Users: Every user on a Linux system is usually assigned a primary group. This primary group is typically created with the same name as the user (e.g., user1 might have a group named user1).

  5. Supplementary Groups: A user can also belong to additional supplementary groups. These groups grant additional permissions without changing the user’s primary group.

Common group management commands:

  • groupadd [group_name]: Create a new group.
  • groupdel [group_name]: Delete a group.
  • usermod -aG [group_name] [user_name]: Add a user to a group.
  • groups [user_name]: Display the groups a user is a part of.
  • id [user_name]: Show user ID and group IDs.

How many types of user in linux os

Root User (Superuser)

  • The root user has unlimited privileges and can perform any action on the system, including modifying system files, managing user accounts, and installing or removing software. It is essentially the administrator of the Linux system.

  • UID: 0 (User Identifier for root)

  • Example: root

  • Usage: Root access is used for system maintenance, configuration, and troubleshooting.

2. Regular User (Non-privileged User)

  • A regular user is any user account that has limited access to the system. They can run applications, access files they have permission to, and perform tasks within their scope (like creating files or directories in their home directory).

  • UID: > 1000 (Typically assigned automatically during account creation)

  • Example: alice, bob

  • Usage: Regular users generally do not have the ability to modify system configurations or access other users' files without permission.

3. System User

  • A system user is a special type of user account used by system processes or services. These users are created to run specific background services (like web servers, databases, etc.). System users do not typically have login capabilities.

  • UID: Typically, system users have a UID between 1 and 999.

  • Example: www-data, mysql, apache

  • Usage: These users are used for managing specific system processes or services to limit access and control.

4. Guest User

  • A guest user is a temporary account, often created for users who need temporary access to the system. Guest users have very limited permissions and typically cannot make changes to the system or access certain files.

  • Usage: The guest user is useful for situations where you want to provide limited access to the system without compromising security.

5. Service User

  • Service users are accounts created specifically for running certain services, typically with restricted privileges. These users are typically not interactive (i.e., you can't log in as a service user).

  • Example: postfix, sshd, cron

  • Usage: These users are dedicated to running a particular service or process with as few privileges as possible to enhance security.

Summary of Types of Users in Linux:

  • Root User (UID 0): Full administrative privileges.

  • Regular Users (UID > 1000): Standard users with limited privileges.

  • System Users (UID 1–999): Used by services and processes.

  • Guest Users: Temporary accounts for limited access.

  • Service Users: For running specific system services, usually without login access.

Each user type plays a critical role in maintaining the security, functionality, and organization of the Linux system.

linux Key feature

The future of Linux is bright and evolving, with many exciting trends and developments on the horizon. As an open-source operating system, Linux continues to play a crucial role in various domains, from personal computing to cloud infrastructure and embedded systems. Here are some key areas shaping the future of Linux:

1. Increased Adoption in Cloud and Server Environments

  • Cloud Computing: Linux is already dominant in cloud computing platforms like AWS, Google Cloud, and Microsoft Azure. As cloud adoption continues to grow, Linux will play an even more central role in powering virtual machines, containers, and server infrastructure.

  • Containerization and Kubernetes: The rise of containers and container orchestration tools like Kubernetes is heavily reliant on Linux. Containers, which are lightweight and efficient, often run on Linux due to its flexibility, scalability, and compatibility with container technologies like Docker.

2. Embedded Systems and IoT

  • Linux is increasingly used in embedded systems and Internet of Things (IoT) devices, powering everything from home appliances to industrial machines. Linux's lightweight nature and adaptability make it a great choice for resource-constrained devices.

  • Real-Time Linux: For IoT and embedded systems that require real-time performance (like industrial control systems), real-time Linux kernels are becoming more prominent, ensuring that tasks are executed within strict timing constraints.

3. Linux on Desktops

  • While Linux has traditionally lagged behind Windows and macOS in the desktop market, it is slowly gaining traction. Linux distributions such as Ubuntu, Fedora, and Linux Mint offer user-friendly interfaces that appeal to both developers and general users.

  • Gaming on Linux: With the growing popularity of gaming platforms like Steam supporting Linux through SteamOS and compatibility layers like Proton, Linux is becoming an increasingly viable option for gamers. Gaming consoles and cloud gaming services (such as Google Stadia and GeForce Now) are also contributing to the spread of Linux.

4. Security Improvements

  • Enhanced Security Features: Linux has long been known for its security, but future developments will continue to strengthen this. Technologies like SELinux (Security-Enhanced Linux) and AppArmor are being integrated and improved for better access control and security policies.

  • Secure Boot and Trusted Execution Environments (TEEs): As cyber threats evolve, Linux distributions will likely integrate more security features, such as support for hardware-based security technologies and more granular control over system processes.

5. Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML)

  • Linux is already a popular choice for developers working on AI and ML projects due to its flexibility, stability, and powerful development tools. With the rise of AI and ML, Linux's role as the preferred OS for data scientists and researchers is expected to expand further.

  • NVIDIA's GPU support and Linux-based tools such as TensorFlow, PyTorch, and Jupyter are helping to make Linux the go-to platform for AI research and deployment.

6. The Rise of Linux in Smartphones (Mobile Linux)

  • While Android (based on Linux) dominates the smartphone market, other mobile Linux-based systems like Ubuntu Touch and postmarketOS are gaining traction in the niche community, focusing on privacy, open-source development, and customization.

  • Linux Phones: There is growing interest in fully open-source Linux smartphones, which prioritize user control and privacy. Companies like Pine64 and Purism are developing Linux-based smartphones that are free from the control of large corporations.

7. Linux Kernel Development

  • The Linux Kernel itself will continue to evolve, with Linus Torvalds and other developers constantly working to improve it. Kernel updates are a major part of the Linux ecosystem, with performance improvements, better hardware support, and security patches being continuously rolled out.

  • Hardware Support: As new hardware technologies are developed, Linux will continue to support new hardware platforms and devices, ensuring that Linux can run on the latest systems.

8. Linux in Supercomputing

  • Linux currently powers nearly all the top supercomputers in the world. The future of supercomputing will continue to be shaped by Linux, as it provides the scalability and performance needed for complex calculations and simulations.

  • Exascale Computing: The push for exascale computing (computers capable of performing at least one exaflop, or a billion billion calculations per second) will likely further rely on Linux due to its scalability and customization.

9. Quantum Computing and Linux

  • As quantum computing advances, there is growing interest in adapting Linux to work with quantum computing technologies. Researchers are developing Linux-based tools and platforms to interface with quantum systems, helping to accelerate the integration of quantum and classical computing.

10. User Experience and Desktop Environments

  • The Linux desktop experience is becoming more polished and user-friendly. Future versions of popular distributions are likely to focus on making Linux easier for non-technical users while retaining the flexibility and power that developers love.

  • Wayland: A new display server protocol, Wayland, is gradually replacing the older X11 system, which could improve performance, security, and efficiency for graphical interfaces.

11. Linux and the Rise of Edge Computing

  • Edge computing involves processing data closer to where it's generated, such as IoT devices, rather than in centralized data centers. Linux is well-positioned to dominate the edge computing space because of its ability to run on low-power devices and its open-source nature, making it customizable for specific edge use cases.

Linux Features

Linux has a wide range of features that make it a powerful and flexible operating system. Here are some key features of Linux:

1. Open Source

  • Free and Open Source: Linux is released under the GNU General Public License (GPL), meaning anyone can use, modify, and distribute the software. This fosters community-driven development and innovation.

2. Multi-user Capability

  • Linux allows multiple users to work on the system simultaneously without interfering with each other’s processes. Each user has their own environment and permissions.

3. Multitasking

  • Linux supports true multitasking, allowing multiple processes to run at the same time. The kernel efficiently manages system resources to ensure smooth operation.

4. Security Features

  • Permissions: Linux uses file permissions to control access to files and directories, allowing users to set who can read, write, or execute a file.

  • SELinux (Security-Enhanced Linux): A set of kernel-level security enhancements that enforce mandatory access control (MAC) policies.

  • AppArmor: Another security module for restricting program capabilities.

5. Package Management

  • Linux distributions come with package management systems (like apt, yum, dnf, pacman, etc.) to install, update, and remove software packages. This makes managing software simple and consistent across distributions.

6. Stability and Reliability

  • Linux is known for its stability, often being used for server environments and critical applications. The system is less likely to crash, and it can run for extended periods without requiring a reboot.

7. Kernel-based Architecture

  • The Linux kernel is the core of the system, handling communication between hardware and software. It supports various hardware architectures, such as x86, ARM, and more.

8. Command Line Interface (CLI)

  • While Linux supports graphical user interfaces (GUIs), it is heavily command-line driven. The terminal provides powerful tools for system administration, scripting, and automation.

9. File System Support

  • Linux supports many file systems, including ext4 (most common), XFS, Btrfs, and even NTFS (with third-party tools).

  • Linux’s file system hierarchy is well-organized, with directories like /home, /bin, /etc, and /usr.

10. Customizability

  • One of Linux's strongest features is its high level of customizability. You can choose from various desktop environments (like GNOME, KDE, Xfce) or even run a window manager (like i3, Openbox) for a minimal setup.

11. Networking and Remote Access

  • Linux provides strong networking capabilities, including tools like ssh (Secure Shell) for remote access, scp for file transfer, and iptables/nftables for firewall management.

12. Virtualization

  • Linux supports various virtualization technologies, like KVM (Kernel-based Virtual Machine), Docker (containerization), and LXD (Linux container hypervisor), allowing users to run multiple virtual machines or containers.

13. Device Drivers

  • Linux has extensive support for a wide variety of devices and hardware. The Linux kernel includes many device drivers, and new ones are added through kernel updates.

14. Community Support

  • Linux has a large and active community, providing extensive documentation, forums, and mailing lists where users can get help and share knowledge.

15. Lightweight and Resource Efficient

  • Linux can run on older hardware or low-resource systems due to its lightweight design, especially with minimalistic desktop environments.

16. Software Development Tools

  • Linux is a developer’s paradise. It includes a vast array of development tools, programming languages, and libraries, and the package managers make it easy to install development environments.